
@article{ott_einfluss_2021,
	title = {Einfluss transkranieller Gleichstromstimulation auf das motorische Lernen bei Patienten mit wiederholten Schädelhirntraumen},
	rights = {http://www.fu-berlin.de/sites/refubium/rechtliches/Nutzungsbedingungen},
	url = {https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/handle/fub188/31761},
	doi = {10.17169/refubium-31493},
	abstract = {Sportler, die repetitiv milde Schädelhirntraumen ({SHT}) erlitten haben, zeigen neben neurokognitiven und motorischen Defizite auch ein erhöhtes Risiko zur Entwicklung einer neurodegenerativen Erkrankung ({McKee} et al. 2009, Tremblay et al. 2012, Deak et al. 2016), wie auch eine erhöhte {GABA}-erge Aktivität mit entsprechender Inhibition der {LTP} (Tremblay et al. 2011). Eine verminderte {LTP} führt bei Personen mit repetitiven {SHTs} zu einer Verminderung des motorischen Lernens (De Beaumont et al. 2012). Die transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation ({tDCS}) ist eine nicht-invasive und sichere Methode zur Neuromodulation (Poreizs et al. 2007) und führt zu einer Verminderung von {GABA}-ergen neuronalen Funktionen (Stagg et al. 2011b, Stagg et al. 2011d). Ziel der vorliegenden Studie ist es zu untersuchen, (1) ob bei jungen klinisch gesunden Probanden, die repetitive milde {SHTs} im Rahmen von sportlichen Aktivitäten erlitten haben, subklinische kognitive und motorische Defizite vorliegen und (2) ob anodale {tDCS} über dem primären Motorkortex zu einer Verbesserung der motorischen Lernfähigkeit führt. Insgesamt wurden 35 junge Probanden (20 gesunde Kontrollprobanden und 15 Probanden mit mindestens zwei milden {SHTs} im Rahmen einer sportlichen Aktivität) untersucht. Neben einer neurokognitiven Testung erfolgten in einem einwöchigen Abstand zwei Sitzungen mit motorischen Testungen. Zuerst wurde jeweils das explizite motorische Lernen, mittels Force Motortask, und dann das implizite Lernen, mittels Serial Reaction Time Task ({SRTT}), getestet. Nach randomisierter Zuteilung erfolgte an einem Termin eine anodale und am anderen Termin eine Scheinstimulation über dem linken primären motorischen Kortex während dem Force Motortask.
In der Patientengruppe zeigten sich im Vergleich zur Kontrollgruppe signifikante kognitive Defizite im Bereich des Kurzzeitgedächtnisses (p = 0,03) und der verbalen Flüssigkeit (p {\textless} 0,05). Desweiteren wurde durch die anodale Stimulation das explizite Lernen inhibiert (p = 0,02). Anodale offline {tDCS} führt zu einer initialen, nicht signifikanten Verbesserung des impliziten motorischen Lernens. Anodale {tDCS} zeigte in der Kontrollgruppe weder auf das explizierte noch das implizierte Lernen einen Effekt.
Dies ist die erste Studie, die den stimulatorischen Effekt auf das motorische Lernen von Probanden, die repetitiv milde {SHTs} erlitten haben, untersucht. Es sind somit zukünftig weitere Forschungen zur Pathophysiologie und möglichen chronischen Folgezuständen nach repetitiven milden {SHTs}, sowie zum Einfluss anodaler {tDCS} auf motorische Fähigkeiten in dieser Probandengruppe nötig.},
	author = {Ott, Stefanie},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2021},
	note = {Accepted: 2021-12-01T10:19:05Z},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/9XZMZB82/Ott - 2021 - Einfluss transkranieller Gleichstromstimulation auf das motorische Lernen bei Patienten mit wiederho.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{neubauer_intelligenzsteigerung_2022,
	title = {Intelligenzsteigerung durch Neuroenhancement?},
	volume = {73},
	issn = {0033-3042},
	url = {https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/abs/10.1026/0033-3042/a000599},
	doi = {10.1026/0033-3042/a000599},
	abstract = {Zusammenfassung. Die menschliche Intelligenz gehört zu den bestuntersuchten psychologischen Merkmalen, in denen interindividuelle Differenzen bestehen. Die mehr als 100jährige Forschungsgeschichte hat einen hoch belastbaren Wissensstand hervorgebracht; dieser umfasst die Definition, die Psychometrie, die (ontogenetische) Entwicklung, die Struktur, die Vorhersagekraft für real-life-Variablen, das Wissen über elementar-kognitive, verhaltensgenetische und neurobiologische Grundlagen der Intelligenz, u.v.m. Jüngst steht zudem die Frage des ‚enhancements‘ der Intelligenz im Fokus, eine Frage, die nicht zuletzt durch die aktuelle philosophische Strömung des Transhumanismus stark an Bedeutung gewinnt. Der Transhumanismus nimmt eine substanzielle Erhöhung (enhancement) von Fähigkeiten und anderen (auch) psychologischen Eigenschaften des Menschen ins Zentrum und postuliert, dass ein soziokultureller Fortschritt – und letztlich das Überlegen des Homo Sapiens und unseres Planeten – erst durch technologischen Fortschritt ermöglicht werde. Viele Transhumanisten stellen eine substanzielle Steigerung der Intelligenz in den Vordergrund, die primär durch (neuro–)‌technologische und pharmakologische Maßnahmen zu bewerkstelligen seien. Diese Debatten sind jedoch oft gekennzeichnet durch übertrieben optimistische Annahmen der Möglichkeiten moderner neurowissenschaftlicher Methoden bei gleichzeitiger Vernachlässigung der potenziellen negativen Folgen für das Individuum, für die Gesellschaften und insgesamt für unsere Spezies. Im gegenständlichen Überblicksbeitrag werden behaviorale, neuroelektrische und pharmakologische Methoden im Hinblick auf ihr aktuelles Potenzial einer Steigerung der individuellen Intelligenz analysiert. Die zwischenzeitlich zu diesen Fragen vorliegenden experimentellen Studien, sowie verfügbare Metaanalysen lassen allerdings den Schluss zu, dass bislang keine der gegenwärtig verfügbaren Methoden das Potenzial haben, die individuelle Intelligenz substanziell zu steigern. Und selbst falls solche möglicherweise in absehbarer Zeit zur Verfügung stünden, müssen zuvor sowohl individuelle als auch gesellschaftliche (negative) Konsequenzen einer kritischen Analyse unterzogen werden. Diese sind Gegenstand einer abschließenden Diskussion.},
	pages = {190--203},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Psychologische Rundschau},
	author = {Neubauer, Aljoscha C. and Wood, Guilherme},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2022-07},
	note = {Publisher: Hogrefe Verlag},
	keywords = {Arbeitsgedächtnistraining, enhancement, Enhancement, intelligence, Intelligenz, transcranial stimulation, transhumanism, Transhumanismus, Transkranielle Stimulation, working memory training},
}

@article{luber_enhancement_2014,
	title = {Enhancement of human cognitive performance using transcranial magnetic stimulation ({TMS})},
	volume = {85},
	issn = {1053-8119},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4083569/},
	doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.06.007},
	abstract = {Here we review the usefulness of transcranial magnetic stimulation ({TMS}) in modulating cortical networks in ways that might produce performance enhancements in healthy human subjects. To date over sixty studies have reported significant improvements in speed and accuracy in a variety of tasks involving perceptual, motor, and executive processing. Two basic categories of enhancement mechanisms are suggested by this literature: direct modulation of a cortical region or network that leads to more efficient processing, and addition-by-subtraction, which is disruption of processing which competes or distracts from task performance. Potential applications of {TMS} cognitive enhancement, including research into cortical function, rehabilitation therapy in neurological and psychiatric illness, and accelerated skill acquisition in healthy individuals are discussed, as are methods of optimizing the magnitude and duration of {TMS}-induced performance enhancement, such as improvement of targeting through further integration of brain imaging with {TMS}. One technique, combining multiple sessions of {TMS} with concurrent {TMS}/task performance to induce Hebbian-like learning, appears to be promising for prolonging enhancement effects. While further refinements in the application of {TMS} to cognitive enhancement can still be made, and questions remain regarding the mechanisms underlying the observed effects, this appears to be a fruitful area of investigation that may shed light on the basic mechanisms of cognitive function and their therapeutic modulation.},
	pages = {961--970},
	number = {0},
	journaltitle = {{NeuroImage}},
	shortjournal = {Neuroimage},
	author = {Luber, Bruce and Lisanby, \{and\} Sarah H.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2014-01-15},
	pmid = {23770409},
	pmcid = {PMC4083569},
}

@article{bennabi_transcranial_2014,
	title = {Transcranial direct current stimulation for memory enhancement: from clinical research to animal models},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1662-5137},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4154388/},
	doi = {10.3389/fnsys.2014.00159},
	shorttitle = {Transcranial direct current stimulation for memory enhancement},
	abstract = {There is a growing demand for new brain-enhancing technologies to improve mental performance, both for patients with cognitive disorders and for healthy individuals. Transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}) is a non-invasive, painless, and easy to use neuromodulatory technique that can improve performance on a variety of cognitive tasks in humans despite its exact mode of action remains unclear. We have conducted a mini-review of the literature to first briefly summarize the growing amount of data from clinical trials assessing the efficacy of {tDCS}, focusing exclusively on learning and memory performances in healthy human subjects and in patients with depression, schizophrenia, and other neurological disorders. We then discuss these findings in the context of the strikingly few studies resulting from animal research. Finally, we highlight future directions and limitations in this field and emphasize the need to develop translational studies to better understand how {tDCS} improves memory, a necessary condition before it can be used as a therapeutic tool.},
	pages = {159},
	journaltitle = {Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience},
	shortjournal = {Front Syst Neurosci},
	author = {Bennabi, Djamila and Pedron, Solène and Haffen, Emmanuel and Monnin, Julie and Peterschmitt, Yvan and Van Waes, Vincent},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2014-09-04},
	pmid = {25237299},
	pmcid = {PMC4154388},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/RYFH7G7A/Bennabi et al. - 2014 - Transcranial direct current stimulation for memory enhancement from clinical research to animal mod.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{cavaleiro_memory_2020,
	title = {Memory and Cognition-Related Neuroplasticity Enhancement by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Rodents: A Systematic Review},
	volume = {2020},
	issn = {1687-5443},
	doi = {10.1155/2020/4795267},
	shorttitle = {Memory and Cognition-Related Neuroplasticity Enhancement by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Rodents},
	abstract = {Brain stimulation techniques, including transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}), were identified as promising therapeutic tools to modulate synaptic plasticity abnormalities and minimize memory and learning deficits in many neuropsychiatric diseases. Here, we revised the effect of {tDCS} on the modulation of neuroplasticity and cognition in several animal disease models of brain diseases affecting plasticity and cognition. Studies included in this review were searched following the terms ("transcranial direct current stimulation") {AND} (mice {OR} mouse {OR} animal) and according to the {PRISMA} statement requirements. Overall, the studies collected suggest that {tDCS} was able to modulate brain plasticity due to synaptic modifications within the stimulated area. Changes in plasticity-related mechanisms were achieved through induction of long-term potentiation ({LTP}) and upregulation of neuroplasticity-related proteins, such as c-fos, brain-derived neurotrophic factor ({BDNF}), or N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors ({NMDARs}). Taken into account all revised studies, {tDCS} is a safe, easy, and noninvasive brain stimulation technique, therapeutically reliable, and with promising potential to promote cognitive enhancement and neuroplasticity. Since the use of {tDCS} has increased as a novel therapeutic approach in humans, animal studies are important to better understand its mechanisms as well as to help improve the stimulation protocols and their potential role in different neuropathologies.},
	pages = {4795267},
	journaltitle = {Neural Plasticity},
	shortjournal = {Neural Plast},
	author = {Cavaleiro, Carla and Martins, João and Gonçalves, Joana and Castelo-Branco, Miguel},
	date = {2020},
	pmid = {32211039},
	pmcid = {PMC7061127},
	keywords = {Animals, Brain, Cognition, Disease Models, Animal, Learning, Memory, Neuronal Plasticity, Neurons, Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/RZFWTQ32/Cavaleiro et al. - 2020 - Memory and Cognition-Related Neuroplasticity Enhancement by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{meinzer_investigating_2024,
	title = {Investigating the neural mechanisms of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on human cognition: current issues and potential solutions},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {1662-453X},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnins.2024.1389651/full},
	doi = {10.3389/fnins.2024.1389651},
	shorttitle = {Investigating the neural mechanisms of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on human cognition},
	abstract = {Transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}) has been studied extensively for its potential to enhance human cognitive functions in healthy individuals and to treat cognitive impairment in various clinical populations. However, little is known about how {tDCS} modulates the neural networks supporting cognition and the complex interplay with mediating factors that may explain the frequently observed variability of stimulation effects within and between studies. Moreover, research in this field has been characterized by substantial methodological variability, frequent lack of rigorous experimental control and small sample sizes, thereby limiting the generalizability of findings and translational potential of {tDCS}.The present manuscript aims to delineate how these important issues can be addressed within a neuroimaging context, to reveal the neural underpinnings, predictors and mediators of {tDCS}-induced behavioral modulation. We will focus on functional magnetic resonance imaging ({fMRI}), because it allows the investigation of {tDCS} effects with excellent spatial precision and sufficient temporal resolution across the entire brain. Moreover, high resolution structural imaging data can be acquired for precise localization of stimulation effects, verification of electrode positions on the scalp and realistic current modeling based on individual head and brain anatomy. However, the general principles outlined in this review will also be applicable to other imaging modalities.Following an introduction to the overall state-of-the-art in this field, we will discuss in more detail the underlying causes of variability in previous {tDCS} studies. Moreover, we will elaborate on design considerations for {tDCS}-{fMRI} studies, optimization of {tDCS} and imaging protocols and how to assure high-level experimental control. Two additional sections address the pressing need for more systematic investigation of {tDCS} effects across the healthy human lifespan and implications for {tDCS} studies in age-associated disease, and potential benefits of establishing large-scale, multidisciplinary consortia for more coordinated {tDCS} research in the future.We hope that this review will contribute to more coordinated, methodologically sound, transparent and reproducible research in this field. Ultimately, our aim is to facilitate a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms by which {tDCS} modulates human cognitive functions and more effective and individually tailored translational and clinical applications of this technique in the future.},
	journaltitle = {Frontiers in Neuroscience},
	shortjournal = {Front. Neurosci.},
	author = {Meinzer, Marcus and Shahbabaie, Alireza and Antonenko, Daria and Blankenburg, Felix and Fischer, Rico and Hartwigsen, Gesa and Nitsche, Michael A. and Li, Shu-Chen and Thielscher, Axel and Timmann, Dagmar and Waltemath, Dagmar and Abdelmotaleb, Mohamed and Kocataş, Harun and Caisachana Guevara, Leonardo M. and Batsikadze, Giorgi and Grundei, Miro and Cunha, Teresa and Hayek, Dayana and Turker, Sabrina and Schlitt, Frederik and Shi, Yiquan and Khan, Asad and Burke, Michael and Riemann, Steffen and Niemann, Filip and Flöel, Agnes},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2024-06-18},
	note = {Publisher: Frontiers},
	keywords = {Cognition, Consortia, Design optimization, Experimental control, Lifespan, {tDCS}-{fMRI}, {TES}, variability},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/EYMSBQRL/Meinzer et al. - 2024 - Investigating the neural mechanisms of transcranial direct current stimulation effects on human cogn.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{woods_technical_2016,
	title = {A technical guide to {tDCS}, and related non-invasive brain stimulation tools},
	volume = {127},
	issn = {1388-2457},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4747791/},
	doi = {10.1016/j.clinph.2015.11.012},
	abstract = {Transcranial electrical stimulation ({tES}), including transcranial direct and alternating current stimulation ({tDCS}, {tACS}) are non-invasive brain stimulation techniques increasingly used for modulation of central nervous system excitability in humans. Here we address methodological issues required for {tES} application. This review covers technical aspects of {tES}, as well as applications like exploration of brain physiology, modelling approaches, {tES} in cognitive neurosciences, and interventional approaches. It aims to help the reader to appropriately design and conduct studies involving these brain stimulation techniques, understand limitations and avoid shortcomings, which might hamper the scientific rigor and potential applications in the clinical domain.},
	pages = {1031--1048},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Clinical neurophysiology : official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology},
	shortjournal = {Clin Neurophysiol},
	author = {Woods, {AJ} and Antal, A and Bikson, M and Boggio, {PS} and Brunoni, {AR} and Celnik, P and Cohen, {LG} and Fregni, F and Herrmann, {CS} and Kappenman, {ES} and Knotkova, H and Liebetanz, D and Miniussi, C and Miranda, {PC} and Paulus, W and Priori, A and Reato, D and Stagg, C and Wenderoth, N and Nitsche, {MA}},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2016-02},
	pmid = {26652115},
	pmcid = {PMC4747791},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/ET3AFXRY/Woods et al. - 2016 - A technical guide to tDCS, and related non-invasive brain stimulation tools.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{li_effects_2024,
	title = {Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with and without Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials},
	volume = {70},
	issn = {0304-324X},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1159/000537848},
	doi = {10.1159/000537848},
	shorttitle = {Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with and without Mild Cognitive Impairment},
	abstract = {Introduction: Noninvasive brain stimulation ({NIBS}) has shown benefits for cognitive function in older adults. However, the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}) on cognitive function in older adults are inconsistent across studies, and the evidence for {tDCS} has limitations. We aim to explore whether {tDCS} can improve cognitive function and different cognitive domains (i.e., learning and memory and executive function) in adults aged 65 years and older with and without mild cognitive impairment and to further analyze the influencing factors of {tDCS}. Methods: Five English databases ({PubMed}, Cochrane Library, {EMBASE}, Web of Science, the cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature [{CINAHL}]) and four Chinese databases were searched from inception to October 14, 2023. Literature screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were completed independently by two reviewers. All statistical analyses were conducted using {RevMan} software (version 5.3). Standardized mean difference ({SMD}) along with a 95\% confidence interval ({CI}) was used to express the effect size of the outcomes, and a random-effect model was also used. Results: A total of 10 {RCTs} and 1,761 participants were included in the meta-analysis, and the risk of bias in those studies was relatively low. A significant effect favoring {tDCS} on immediate postintervention cognitive function ({SMD} = 0.16, Z = 2.36, p = 0.02) was found. However, the effects on immediate postintervention learning and memory ({SMD} = 0.20, Z = 2.00, p = 0.05) and executive function ({SMD} = 0.10, Z = 1.22, p = 0.22), and 1-month postintervention cognitive function ({SMD} = 0.12, Z = 1.50, p = 0.13), learning and memory ({SMD} = 0.17, Z = 1.39, p = 0.16), and executive function ({SMD} = 0.08, Z = 0.67, p = 0.51) were not statistically significant. Conclusion: {tDCS} can significantly improve the immediate postintervention cognitive function of healthy older adults and {MCI} elderly individuals. Additional longitudinal extensive sample studies are required to clarify the specific effects of {tDCS} on different cognitive domains, and the optimal {tDCS} parameters need to be explored to guide clinical practice.},
	pages = {544--560},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Gerontology},
	shortjournal = {Gerontology},
	author = {Li, Sijia and Tang, Ying and Zhou, You and Ni, Yunxia},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2024-03-08},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/ABXTN2K9/Li et al. - 2024 - Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with and wi.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/AP8WANKP/000537848.html:text/html},
}

@inproceedings{hamilton_neural_2015,
	title = {Neural signal processing and closed-loop control algorithm design for an implanted neural recording and stimulation system},
	url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7320207},
	doi = {10.1109/EMBC.2015.7320207},
	abstract = {A fully autonomous intracranial device is built to continually record neural activities in different parts of the brain, process these sampled signals, decode features that correlate to behaviors and neuropsychiatric states, and use these features to deliver brain stimulation in a closed-loop fashion. In this paper, we describe the sampling and stimulation aspects of such a device. We first describe the signal processing algorithms of two unsupervised spike sorting methods. Next, we describe the {LFP} time-frequency analysis and feature derivation from the two spike sorting methods. Spike sorting includes a novel approach to constructing a dictionary learning algorithm in a Compressed Sensing ({CS}) framework. We present a joint prediction scheme to determine the class of neural spikes in the dictionary learning framework; and, the second approach is a modified {OSort} algorithm which is implemented in a distributed system optimized for power efficiency. Furthermore, sorted spikes and time-frequency analysis of {LFP} signals can be used to generate derived features (including cross-frequency coupling, spike-field coupling). We then show how these derived features can be used in the design and development of novel decode and closed-loop control algorithms that are optimized to apply deep brain stimulation based on a patient's neuropsychiatric state. For the control algorithm, we define the state vector as representative of a patient's impulsivity, avoidance, inhibition, etc. Controller parameters are optimized to apply stimulation based on the state vector's current state as well as its historical values. The overall algorithm and software design for our implantable neural recording and stimulation system uses an innovative, adaptable, and reprogrammable architecture that enables advancement of the state-of-the-art in closed-loop neural control while also meeting the challenges of system power constraints and concurrent development with ongoing scientific research designed to define brain network connectivity and neural network dynamics that vary at the individual patient level and vary over time.},
	eventtitle = {2015 37th Annual International Conference of the {IEEE} Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society ({EMBC})},
	pages = {7831--7836},
	booktitle = {2015 37th Annual International Conference of the {IEEE} Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society ({EMBC})},
	author = {Hamilton, Lei and {McConley}, Marc and Angermueller, Kai and Goldberg, David and Corba, Massimiliano and Kim, Louis and Moran, James and Parks, Philip D. and Chin, Sang and Widge, Alik S. and Dougherty, Darin D. and Eskandar, Emad N.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2015-08},
	note = {{ISSN}: 1558-4615},
	keywords = {Algorithm design and analysis, Base stations, Closed-loop Control, Decode, Dictionaries, Neural Stimulation, Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Real-time systems, Signal processing, Signal Processing, Signal processing algorithms, Software algorithms},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/BTGZA7MM/Hamilton et al. - 2015 - Neural signal processing and closed-loop control algorithm design for an implanted neural recording.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{simonsmeier_electrical_2018,
	title = {Electrical brain stimulation ({tES}) improves learning more than performance: A meta-analysis},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {01497634},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763417303172},
	doi = {10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.001},
	shorttitle = {Electrical brain stimulation ({tES}) improves learning more than performance},
	abstract = {Researchers have recently started evaluating whether stimulating the brain noninvasively with a weak and painless electrical current (transcranial Electrical Stimulation, {tES}) enhances physiological and cognitive processes. Some studies found that {tES} has weak but positive eﬀects on brain physiology, cognition, or assessment performance, which has attracted massive public interest. We present the ﬁrst meta-analytic test of the hypothesis that {tES} in a learning phase is more eﬀective than {tES} in an assessment phase. The meta-analysis included 246 eﬀect sizes from studies on language or mathematical competence. The eﬀect of {tES} was stronger when stimulation was administered during a learning phase (d = 0.712) as compared to stimulation administered during test performance (d = 0.207). The overall eﬀect was stimulation-dosage speciﬁc and, as found in a previous meta-analysis, signiﬁcant only for anodal stimulation and not for cathodal. The results provide evidence for the modulation of long-term synaptic plasticity by {tES} in the context of practically relevant learning tasks and highlight the need for more systematic evaluations of {tES} in educational settings.},
	pages = {171--181},
	journaltitle = {Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews},
	shortjournal = {Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews},
	author = {Simonsmeier, Bianca A. and Grabner, Roland H. and Hein, Julia and Krenz, Ugne and Schneider, Michael},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2018-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/ZH2XLENF/Simonsmeier et al. - 2018 - Electrical brain stimulation (tES) improves learning more than performance A meta-analysis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{senkowski_boosting_2022,
	title = {Boosting working memory: uncovering the differential effects of {tDCS} and {tACS}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2632-7376},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9113288/},
	doi = {10.1093/texcom/tgac018},
	shorttitle = {Boosting working memory},
	abstract = {Working memory ({WM}) is essential for reasoning, decision-making, and problem solving. Recently, there has been an increasing effort in improving {WM} through noninvasive brain stimulation ({NIBS}), especially transcranial direct and alternating current stimulation ({tDCS}/{tACS}). Studies suggest that {tDCS} and {tACS} can modulate {WM} performance, but large variability in research approaches hinders the identification of optimal stimulation protocols and interpretation of study results. Moreover, it is unclear whether {tDCS} and {tACS} differentially affect {WM}. Here, we summarize and compare studies examining the effects of {tDCS} and {tACS} on {WM} performance in healthy adults. Following {PRISMA}-selection criteria, our systematic review resulted in 43 studies (29 {tDCS}, 11 {tACS}, 3 both) with a total of 1826 adult participants. For {tDCS}, only 4 out of 23 single-session studies reported effects on {WM}, while 7 out of 9 multi-session experiments showed positive effects on {WM} training. For {tACS}, 10 out of 14 studies demonstrated effects on {WM}, which were frequency dependent and robust for frontoparietal stimulation. Our review revealed no reliable effect of single-session {tDCS} on {WM} but moderate effects of multi-session {tDCS} and single-session {tACS}. We discuss the implications of these findings and future directions in the emerging research field of {NIBS} and {WM}.},
	pages = {tgac018},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Cerebral Cortex Communications},
	shortjournal = {Cereb Cortex Commun},
	author = {Senkowski, Daniel and Sobirey, Rabea and Haslacher, David and Soekadar, Surjo R},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2022-05-07},
	pmid = {35592391},
	pmcid = {PMC9113288},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/YT8A9PEV/Senkowski et al. - 2022 - Boosting working memory uncovering the differential effects of tDCS and tACS.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@online{noauthor_neurowissenschaft_nodate,
	title = {Neurowissenschaft: Hirnmanipulation per Hightech},
	url = {https://www.spektrum.de/news/transkranielle-hirnstimulation-als-therapie/1345240},
	shorttitle = {Neurowissenschaft},
	abstract = {Durch Elektrizität und Magnetfelder lässt sich das Gehirn von außen beeinflussen},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	langid = {german},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/H29CF4ME/1345240.html:text/html},
}

@online{doccheck_transkranielle_nodate,
	title = {Transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation},
	url = {https://flexikon.doccheck.com/de/Transkranielle_Gleichstromstimulation},
	abstract = {Die transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation, kurz {tDCS}, ist ein nicht-invasives, neurostimulatorisches Verfahren, das schwache elektrische...},
	titleaddon = {{DocCheck} Flexikon},
	author = {{DocCheck}, Medizinexpert*innen bei},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	langid = {german},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/P76JNYPZ/Transkranielle_Gleichstromstimulation.html:text/html},
}

@online{doccheck_neuronale_nodate,
	title = {Neuronale Plastizität},
	url = {https://flexikon.doccheck.com/de/Neuronale_Plastizit%C3%A4t},
	abstract = {Der Begriff neuronale Plastizität beschreibt den Umbau neuronaler Strukturen in Abhängigkeit von ihrer Aktivität. Die neuronale Plastizität kann...},
	titleaddon = {{DocCheck} Flexikon},
	author = {{DocCheck}, Medizinexpert*innen bei},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	langid = {german},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/FNJQ3A26/Neuronale_Plastizität.html:text/html},
}

@article{maceira-elvira_native_2024,
	title = {Native learning ability and not age determines the effects of brain stimulation},
	volume = {9},
	rights = {2024 The Author(s)},
	issn = {2056-7936},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41539-024-00278-y},
	doi = {10.1038/s41539-024-00278-y},
	abstract = {Healthy aging often entails a decline in cognitive and motor functions, affecting independence and quality of life in older adults. Brain stimulation shows potential to enhance these functions, but studies show variable effects. Previous studies have tried to identify responders and non-responders through correlations between behavioral change and baseline parameters, but results lack generalization to independent cohorts. We propose a method to predict an individual’s likelihood of benefiting from stimulation, based on baseline performance of a sequential motor task. Our results show that individuals with less efficient learning mechanisms benefit from stimulation, while those with optimal learning strategies experience none or even detrimental effects. This differential effect, first identified in a public dataset and replicated here in an independent cohort, was linked to one’s ability to integrate task-relevant information and not age. This study constitutes a further step towards personalized clinical-translational interventions based on brain stimulation.},
	pages = {69},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {npj Science of Learning},
	shortjournal = {npj Sci. Learn.},
	author = {Maceira-Elvira, Pablo and Popa, Traian and Schmid, Anne-Christine and Cadic-Melchior, Andéol and Müller, Henning and Schaer, Roger and Cohen, Leonardo G. and Hummel, Friedhelm C.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2024-11-27},
	langid = {english},
	note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},
	keywords = {Cognitive ageing, Learning and memory, Motor cortex, Sensory processing},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/YER9X7WT/Maceira-Elvira et al. - 2024 - Native learning ability and not age determines the effects of brain stimulation.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gibson_transcranial_2020,
	title = {Transcranial direct current stimulation facilitates category learning},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1935-861X},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1935861X19304681},
	doi = {10.1016/j.brs.2019.11.010},
	abstract = {Background
After two decades of transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}) research, it is still unclear which applications benefit most from which {tDCS} protocols. One prospect is the acceleration of learning, where previous work has demonstrated that anodal {tDCS} applied to the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex ({rVLPFC}) is capable of doubling the rate of learning in a visual camouflaged threat detection and category learning task.
Goals
Questions remain as to the specific cognitive mechanisms underlying this learning enhancement, and whether it generalizes to other tasks. The goal of the current project was to expand previous findings by employing a novel category learning task.
Methods
Participants learned to classify pictures of European streets within a discovery learning paradigm. In a double-blind design, 54 participants were randomly assigned to 30 min of {tDCS} using either 2.0 {mA} anodal (n = 18), cathodal (n = 18), or 0.1 {mA} sham (n = 18) {tDCS} over the {rVLPFC}.
Results
A linear mixed-model revealed a significant effect of {tDCS} condition on classification accuracy across training (p = 0.001). Compared to a 4.2\% increase in sham participants, anodal {tDCS} over F10 increased performance by 20.6\% (d = 1.71) and cathodal {tDCS} by 14.4\% (d = 1.16).
Conclusions
These results provide further evidence for the capacity of {tDCS} applied to {rVLPFC} to enhance learning, showing a greater than quadrupling of test performance after training (491\% of sham) in a difficult category learning task. Combined with our previous studies, these results suggest a generalized performance enhancement. Other tasks requiring sustained attention, insight and/or category learning may also benefit from this protocol.},
	pages = {393--400},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Brain Stimulation},
	shortjournal = {Brain Stimulation},
	author = {Gibson, Benjamin C. and Mullins, Teagan S. and Heinrich, Melissa D. and Witkiewitz, Katie and Yu, Alfred B. and Hansberger, Jeffrey T. and Clark, Vincent P.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2020-03-01},
	keywords = {{IFG}, Learning, Neuroplasticity, {NIBS}, {tDCS}, {VLPFC}},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/63IKSU5D/Gibson et al. - 2020 - Transcranial direct current stimulation facilitates category learning.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/7N74VDSB/S1935861X19304681.html:text/html},
}

@incollection{chatterjee_chapter_2013,
	title = {Chapter 27 - The ethics of neuroenhancement},
	volume = {118},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444535016000275},
	series = {Ethical and Legal Issues in Neurology},
	abstract = {In the wake of our improving abilities to treat or modulate the impaired nervous system, we are also learning how we might improve the abilities of the healthy nervous system. We can modulate our motor, cognitive, and affective systems in ways that potentially enhance us. Pharmacologic enhancements are used widely in some circles and their use is likely to increase. Newer noninvasive stimulation techniques also have the potential to be used as enhancements. Neuroenhancements raise deep ethical concerns about safety, compromised character, distributive justice, and coercion. The ethical concerns apply to adults in general, but also in unique ways to children who are not completely autonomous and to soldiers who choose to relinquish some of their autonomy. There are no easy solutions to these ethical concerns. Prohibition of enhancements is not a viable option. Lay and professional discussions will help establish cultural norms and guide clinical practice as well as public policy.},
	pages = {323--334},
	booktitle = {Handbook of Clinical Neurology},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {Chatterjee, Anjan},
	editor = {Bernat, James L. and Beresford, H. Richard},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2013-01-01},
	doi = {10.1016/B978-0-444-53501-6.00027-5},
	keywords = {bioethics, cosmetic neurology, enhancement, neuroethics, quality of life},
	file = {ScienceDirect Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/GFYKQ8UU/B9780444535016000275.html:text/html},
}

@article{bruhl_neuroethical_2019,
	title = {Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement: Modafinil as the example of a workplace drug?},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2398-2128},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7058249/},
	doi = {10.1177/2398212818816018},
	shorttitle = {Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement},
	abstract = {The use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals has been a feature for much of recorded history. Cocaine and amphetamine are modern cases of drugs initially enthusiastically acclaimed for enhancing cognition and mood. Today, an increasing number of healthy people are reported to use cognitive-enhancing drugs, as well as other interventions, such as non-invasive brain stimulation, to maintain or improve work performance. Cognitive-enhancing drugs, such as methylphenidate and modafinil, which were developed as treatments, are increasingly being used by healthy people. Modafinil not only affects ‘cold’ cognition, but also improves ‘hot’ cognition, such as emotion recognition and task-related motivation. The lifestyle use of ‘smart drugs’ raises both safety concerns as well as ethical issues, including coercion and increasing disparity in society. As a society, we need to consider which forms of cognitive enhancement (e.g. pharmacological, exercise, lifelong learning) are acceptable and for which groups under what conditions and by what methods we would wish to improve and flourish.},
	pages = {2398212818816018},
	journaltitle = {Brain and Neuroscience Advances},
	shortjournal = {Brain Neurosci Adv},
	author = {Brühl, Annette B. and d’Angelo, Camilla and Sahakian, Barbara J.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2019-02-15},
	pmid = {32166175},
	pmcid = {PMC7058249},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/TU83VWIP/Brühl et al. - 2019 - Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement Modafinil as the example of a workplace drug.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{forlini_is_2016,
	title = {The is and ought of the Ethics of Neuroenhancement: Mind the Gap},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1664-1078},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4705235/},
	doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01998},
	shorttitle = {The is and ought of the Ethics of Neuroenhancement},
	abstract = {Ethical perspectives on the use of stimulants to enhance human cognitive performance (neuroenhancement) are polarized between conservative and liberal theories offering opposing advice on whether individuals have a right to use neuroenhancers and what the social outcomes of neuroenhancement might be. Meanwhile, empirical evidence shows modest prevalence and guarded public attitudes toward the neuroenhancement use of stimulants. In this Perspective, we argue that the dissonance between the prescriptions of ethical theories (what ought to be) and empirical evidence (what is) has impaired our understanding of neuroenhancement practices. This dissonance is a result of three common errors in research on the ethics of neuroenhancement: (1) expecting that public perspectives will conform to a prescriptive ethical framework; (2) ignoring the socio-economic infrastructures that influence individuals’ decisions on whether or not to use neuroenhancement; and (3) overlooking conflicts between fundamental ethical values namely, safety of neuroenhancement and autonomy. We argue that in order to understand neuroenhancement practices it is essential to recognize which values affect individual decisions to use or refuse to use neuroenhancement. Future research on the ethics of neuroenhancement should assess the morally significant values for stakeholders. This will fill the gap between what ought to be done and what is done with an improved understanding of what can be done within a particular context. Clarifying conflicts between competing moral values is critical in conducting research on the efficacy of substances putatively used for neuroenhancement and also on neuroenhancement practices within academic, professional and social environments.},
	pages = {1998},
	journaltitle = {Frontiers in Psychology},
	shortjournal = {Front Psychol},
	author = {Forlini, Cynthia and Hall, Wayne},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2016-01-08},
	pmid = {26779100},
	pmcid = {PMC4705235},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/A8JJUCLY/Forlini and Hall - 2016 - The is and ought of the Ethics of Neuroenhancement Mind the Gap.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{glannon_neuroethics_nodate,
	title = {Neuroethics: Cognitive Enhancement},
	isbn = {978-0-19-993531-4},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935314.013.43},
	shorttitle = {Neuroethics},
	abstract = {This article describes how psychostimulants and other drugs can enhance cognitive capacities and explores the ethical implications of this form of enhancement. Focusing mainly on methylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil, the article cites scientific studies indicating that those with a lower baseline of working memory tend to benefit more from cognitive enhancement than those with a higher baseline. Enhancing some cognitive capacities through neurotransmitters may come at the cost of diminishing others and may result in addiction or other pathological behavior. This suggests that an unlimited augmentative conception of enhancement needs to be replaced by one that that involves optimal levels of cognitive capacities to improve performance on specific tasks in promoting flexible behavior and adaptability to the environment. Cognitive enhancement would not likely increase social inequality and would be consistent with authenticity, excellence, and achievement. How cognitive enhancement could be one component of moral enhancement is also discussed.},
	pages = {0},
	booktitle = {The Oxford Handbook of Topics in Philosophy},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Glannon, Walter},
	editor = {{Oxford Handbooks Editorial Board}},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	doi = {10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935314.013.43},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/KEMW4LH5/Glannon - Neuroethics Cognitive Enhancement.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/UABW23LF/9780199935314.013.html:text/html},
}

@article{cappon_educational_2024,
	title = {An educational program for remote training and supervision of home-based transcranial electrical stimulation: feasibility and preliminary effectiveness},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {1094-7159},
	url = {https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10850429/},
	doi = {10.1016/j.neurom.2023.04.477},
	shorttitle = {An educational program for remote training and supervision of home-based transcranial electrical stimulation},
	abstract = {Objective:
There has been recent interest in the administration of transcranial electrical stimulation ({tES}) by a caregiver, family member, or patient themselves while in their own homes ({HB}-{tES}). The need to properly train individuals in the administration of {HB}-{tES} is essential, and the lack of a uniform training approach across studies has come to light. The primary aim of this paper is to present the {HB}-{tES} training and supervision program, a tele-supervised, instructional, and evaluation program to teach laypeople how to administer {HB}-{tES} to a participant and provide a standardized framework for remote monitoring of participants by teaching staff. The secondary aim is to present early pilot data on the feasibility and effectiveness of the training portion of the program based on its implementation in 379 sessions between two pilot clinical trials.

Materials and Methods:
The program includes instructional materials, standardized tele-supervised hands-on practice sessions, and a system for remote supervision of participants by teaching staff. Nine laypersons completed the training program. Data on the feasibility and effectiveness of the program were collected.

Results:
No adverse events were reported during the training or any of the {HB}-{tES} sessions after the training. All laypersons successfully completed the training. The nine laypersons reported being satisfied with the training program and confident in their {tES} administration capabilities. This was consistent with laypersons requiring technical assistance from teaching staff very infrequently during the 379 completed sessions. The average adherence rate between all administrators was over 98\%, with 7/9 administrators having 100\% adherence to the scheduled sessions.

Conclusions:
These findings indicate that the {HB}-{tES} program is effective and is associated with participant satisfaction.

Significance:
We hope that the remote nature of this training program will facilitate increased accessibility to {HB}-{tES} research for participants of different demographics and locations. This program, designed for easy adaptation to different {HB}-{tES} research applications and devices, is also accessible online. The adoption of this program is expected to facilitate uniformity of study methodology among future {HB}-{tES} studies, and thereby accelerate the pace of {tES} intervention discovery.},
	pages = {636--644},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Neuromodulation : journal of the International Neuromodulation Society},
	shortjournal = {Neuromodulation},
	author = {Cappon, Davide and den Boer, Tim and Yu, Wanting and {LaGanke}, Nicole and Fox, Rachel and Brozgol, Marina and Hausdorff, Jeffrey M. and Manor, Brad and Pascual-Leone, Alvaro},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2024-06},
	pmid = {37552152},
	pmcid = {PMC10850429},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/F7TFZA6K/Cappon et al. - 2024 - An educational program for remote training and supervision of home-based transcranial electrical sti.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{simonsmeier_electrical_2018-1,
	title = {Electrical brain stimulation ({tES}) improves learning more than performance: A meta-analysis},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {01497634},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763417303172},
	doi = {10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.001},
	shorttitle = {Electrical brain stimulation ({tES}) improves learning more than performance},
	abstract = {Researchers have recently started evaluating whether stimulating the brain noninvasively with a weak and painless electrical current (transcranial Electrical Stimulation, {tES}) enhances physiological and cognitive processes. Some studies found that {tES} has weak but positive eﬀects on brain physiology, cognition, or assessment performance, which has attracted massive public interest. We present the ﬁrst meta-analytic test of the hypothesis that {tES} in a learning phase is more eﬀective than {tES} in an assessment phase. The meta-analysis included 246 eﬀect sizes from studies on language or mathematical competence. The eﬀect of {tES} was stronger when stimulation was administered during a learning phase (d = 0.712) as compared to stimulation administered during test performance (d = 0.207). The overall eﬀect was stimulation-dosage speciﬁc and, as found in a previous meta-analysis, signiﬁcant only for anodal stimulation and not for cathodal. The results provide evidence for the modulation of long-term synaptic plasticity by {tES} in the context of practically relevant learning tasks and highlight the need for more systematic evaluations of {tES} in educational settings.},
	pages = {171--181},
	journaltitle = {Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews},
	shortjournal = {Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews},
	author = {Simonsmeier, Bianca A. and Grabner, Roland H. and Hein, Julia and Krenz, Ugne and Schneider, Michael},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2018-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/5S8W3FJB/Simonsmeier et al. - 2018 - Electrical brain stimulation (tES) improves learning more than performance A meta-analysis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{reis_noninvasive_2009,
	title = {Noninvasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effect on consolidation},
	volume = {106},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0805413106},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.0805413106},
	abstract = {Motor skills can take weeks to months to acquire and can diminish over time in the absence of continued practice. Thus, strategies that enhance skill acquisition or retention are of great scientific and practical interest. Here we investigated the effect of noninvasive cortical stimulation on the extended time course of learning a novel and challenging motor skill task. A skill measure was chosen to reflect shifts in the task's speed–accuracy tradeoff function ({SAF}), which prevented us from falsely interpreting variations in position along an unchanged {SAF} as a change in skill. Subjects practiced over 5 consecutive days while receiving transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}) over the primary motor cortex (M1). Using the skill measure, we assessed the impact of anodal (relative to sham) {tDCS} on both within-day (online) and between-day (offline) effects and on the rate of forgetting during a 3-month follow-up (long-term retention). There was greater total (online plus offline) skill acquisition with anodal {tDCS} compared to sham, which was mediated through a selective enhancement of offline effects. Anodal {tDCS} did not change the rate of forgetting relative to sham across the 3-month follow-up period, and consequently the skill measure remained greater with anodal {tDCS} at 3 months. This prolonged enhancement may hold promise for the rehabilitation of brain injury. Furthermore, these findings support the existence of a consolidation mechanism, susceptible to anodal {tDCS}, which contributes to offline effects but not to online effects or long-term retention.},
	pages = {1590--1595},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Reis, Janine and Schambra, Heidi M. and Cohen, Leonardo G. and Buch, Ethan R. and Fritsch, Brita and Zarahn, Eric and Celnik, Pablo A. and Krakauer, John W.},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2009-02-03},
	note = {Publisher: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/DWVLQDL9/Reis et al. - 2009 - Noninvasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effe.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{akkad_increasing_2021,
	title = {Increasing human motor skill acquisition by driving theta–gamma coupling},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {2050-084X},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.67355},
	doi = {10.7554/eLife.67355},
	abstract = {Skill learning is a fundamental adaptive process, but the mechanisms remain poorly understood. Some learning paradigms, particularly in the memory domain, are closely associated with gamma activity that is amplitude modulated by the phase of underlying theta activity, but whether such nested activity patterns also underpin skill learning is unknown. Here, we addressed this question by using transcranial alternating current stimulation ({tACS}) over sensorimotor cortex to modulate theta–gamma activity during motor skill acquisition, as an exemplar of a non-hippocampal-dependent task. We demonstrated, and then replicated, a significant improvement in skill acquisition with theta–gamma {tACS}, which outlasted the stimulation by an hour. Our results suggest that theta–gamma activity may be a common mechanism for learning across the brain and provides a putative novel intervention for optimizing functional improvements in response to training or therapy.},
	pages = {e67355},
	journaltitle = {{eLife}},
	author = {Akkad, Haya and Dupont-Hadwen, Joshua and Kane, Edward and Evans, Carys and Barrett, Liam and Frese, Amba and Tetkovic, Irena and Bestmann, Sven and Stagg, Charlotte J},
	editor = {Kahnt, Thorsten and Ivry, Richard B and Nitsche, Michael A},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2021-11-23},
	note = {Publisher: {eLife} Sciences Publications, Ltd},
	keywords = {motor learning, non-invasive brain stimulation, theta-gamma coupling, transcranial alternating current stimulation},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/ABAMGG4R/Akkad et al. - 2021 - Increasing human motor skill acquisition by driving theta–gamma coupling.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{disorders_enhancement_2015,
	title = {Enhancement of Brain Function and Performance},
	url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK332918/},
	abstract = {The effects of non-invasive brain stimulation technologies on cognition and performance has both therapeutic and non-therapeutic applications, depending on whether they are used to ameliorate symptoms of a disorder or enhance otherwise normal function. Indeed, according to Alvaro Pascual-Leone, the range of non-therapeutic applications is growing even faster than therapeutic applications. One reason for the growth of research in this area is that because most investigational interventions are initially tested in groups of healthy individuals before being tested in patients, most of the available evidence about the effects of these technologies are from healthy subjects, noted Roi Cohen Kadosh.},
	booktitle = {Non-Invasive Neuromodulation of the Central Nervous System: Opportunities and Challenges: Workshop Summary},
	publisher = {National Academies Press ({US})},
	author = {Disorders, Forum on Neuroscience \{and\} Nervous System and Policy, Board on Health Sciences and Medicine, Institute of and The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2015-11-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/QG3BY6VR/NBK332918.html:text/html},
}

@incollection{disorders_ethical_2015,
	title = {Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues},
	url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK332930/},
	abstract = {Ethics in the context of neuromodulation extends far beyond what Aristotle would have recognized as classical ethics issues in his day, said Hank Greely. With regard to neuromodulation, the topic spans ethical, legal, social, and even political implications, indeed, all things in society that affect the use and potential misuse of these devices now and in the future. For example, Alvaro Pascual-Leone mentioned the reality that off-label application of neurostimulation is rapidly expanding, without examination or a full understanding of safety and efficacy implications. Patients are making devices, buying devices, and getting clinicians to prescribe devices; companies are developing new consumer-targeted devices with non-medical aims that ultimately get leveraged into the medical setting.},
	booktitle = {Non-Invasive Neuromodulation of the Central Nervous System: Opportunities and Challenges: Workshop Summary},
	publisher = {National Academies Press ({US})},
	author = {Disorders, Forum on Neuroscience \{and\} Nervous System and Policy, Board on Health Sciences and Medicine, Institute of and The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	date = {2015-11-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/EUFSGN2W/NBK332930.html:text/html},
}

@article{huang_theta_2005,
	title = {Theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex},
	volume = {45},
	doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2004.12.033},
	pages = {201--206},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Neuron},
	author = {Huang, Yong Cheng and Edwards, Mark J and Rounis, Emmanouela and Bhatia, Kailash P and Rothwell, John C},
	date = {2005},
	pmid = {15664172},
}

@article{vergallito_inter-individual_2022,
	title = {Inter-individual Variability in {tDCS} Effects: A Narrative Review},
	volume = {16},
	doi = {10.3389/fnins.2022.899065},
	pages = {899065},
	journaltitle = {Frontiers in Neuroscience},
	author = {Vergallito, Andrea and Vöröss, Gábor and Amore, Gabriele and Caruso, Anna and Rossi, Simona and Filmer, Hannah L and Nitsche, Michael A and Perceval, G and Thut, Gregor},
	date = {2022},
	pmcid = {PMC9139102},
}

@article{chew_inter-_2015,
	title = {Inter- and Intra-individual Variability in Response to Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation},
	volume = {8},
	doi = {10.1016/j.brs.2014.10.020},
	pages = {423--433},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Brain Stimulation},
	author = {Chew, Tammy and Ho, Kin Foon and Outhred, Tim and Breakspear, Michael and Lee, Raymond S C},
	date = {2015},
	pmid = {25500100},
}

@article{esser_level_2006,
	title = {Level of action of cathodal direct current revealed by intracellular recordings in the rat cortical slice},
	volume = {96},
	doi = {10.1152/jn.00529.2006},
	pages = {3141--3153},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Neurophysiology},
	author = {Esser, {SK} and Hubbard, {DL} and Tononi, G and Massimini, M},
	date = {2006},
	pmid = {16956991},
}

@article{thair_transcranial_2017,
	title = {Transcranial direct current stimulation ({tDCS}): a comprehensive review of safety considerations and adverse effects},
	volume = {11},
	doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2017.00642},
	pages = {642},
	journaltitle = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience},
	author = {Thair, Humberto and Holloway, Alexandra L and Newport, Rebecca and Smith, Andrew D},
	date = {2017},
	pmcid = {PMC5740087},
}

@article{caulfield_optimized_2022,
	title = {Optimized electrode positions, size, and current intensity for high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation},
	volume = {12},
	doi = {10.1038/s41598-022-24618-3},
	pages = {19985},
	journaltitle = {Nature Scientific Reports},
	author = {Caulfield, Katherine A and Kong, Yanyan and Mazziotta, John and Recanzone, Gregg H and Poizner, Howard},
	date = {2022},
}

@article{hoy_enhancement_2016,
	title = {Enhancement of working memory and task-related neural activity following intermittent transcranial theta burst stimulation},
	volume = {26},
	doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhw245},
	pages = {4563--4573},
	number = {12},
	journaltitle = {Cerebral Cortex},
	author = {Hoy, Kristy E and Emonson, Mark {RL} and Arnold, Stephanie L and Thomson, Rachel H and Daskalakis, Zafiris J and Fitzgerald, Paul B},
	date = {2016},
	pmid = {27655924},
}

@article{tms_neuroplasticity_2025,
	title = {Neuroplasticity and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation ({TMS}): Unlocking the Brain's Potential},
	url = {https://bellavidatms.com/tms/neuroplasticity-and-transcranial-magnetic-stimulation-tms-unlocking-the-brains-potential/},
	journaltitle = {Blog},
	author = {{TMS}, {BellaVida}},
	date = {2025-05},
}

@online{doccheck_transkranielle_nodate-1,
	title = {Transkranielle Magnetstimulation},
	url = {https://flexikon.doccheck.com/de/Transkranielle_Magnetstimulation},
	abstract = {Die transkranielle Magnetstimulation, kurz {TMS}, ist ein nicht-invasives Verfahren, bei der Gehirnareale mithilfe von Magnetfeldern durch...},
	titleaddon = {{DocCheck} Flexikon},
	author = {{DocCheck}, Medizinexpert*innen bei},
	urldate = {2025-10-28},
	langid = {german},
	file = {Snapshot:/home/frederik/Zotero/storage/SMTLEPHU/Transkranielle_Magnetstimulation.html:text/html},
}
